(Krimsky 2003) Public interest science comprises research related to environmental problems of many kinds; to the risks of new technologies, particularly genetically modified organisms and nanotechnology; to the harmful consequences of the technological model of agriculture and to the development of alternative forms, like agroecology; to preventive medicine, to neglected diseases etc. I will call the two poles of the tension the laissez-faire view, and the market interventionist view. The English mathematician G. H. Hardy, much affected by the military applications of science in World War I, became a staunch supporter of pure, curiosity-driven science. Accessed: 26 Aug. 2014. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009. Available at: . Business model innovation is the discovery of new ways of capturing value. If innovations are all that matters, and basic research contributes little to the production of innovations, then there is no great harm in its demise. In a situation where innovationist policies prevail, it is clear that the areas with a high innovation potential will be favored, to the detriment of areas with null or low innovation potential. literature as the linear model of innovation, but has received little critical attention so far. The model is ultimately summarized with the following steps: Basic research → Applied research → Development → (Production and) Diffusion. As mentioned in section 3, Vannevar Bush and his colleagues' aim was to obtain funds for research from the state, without giving up the autonomy of the scientific community in the determination of its research programme. Examples ! Analyzing the liberal movement in 19th C in The great transformation, Polanyi writes: The road to the free market was opened and kept open by an enormous increase in continuous, centrally organized and controlled interventionism (Polanyi, 2001 [1944], p. 146). In his book A mathematician's apology, he mentions a "saying attributed to Gauss, to the effect that, if mathematics is the queen of the sciences, the theory of numbers is, because of its supreme uselessness, the queen of mathematics" (Hardy, 1981 [1940], p. 120). Examples of Business Model Innovation. Sometimes, as was the case with the example of detecting pollutants underwater, we run into a well-defined problem that’s just devilishly hard to solve. Each of those categories corresponds to a dimension of the global process of commodification of science. The Oxford handbook of innovation. The imputation of the LMI to Sef implicitly - and wrongly - suggests that Vannevar Bush was dealing with the same problem, namely, how to orient science to the production of profitable applications, only diverging as regards the strategy for its approach. The Linear Model of Innovation: The Historical Construction of an Analytical Framework. Accessed: 26 Aug. 2014. The discussion on the dichotomy built on the models of closed and open innovation is set out in section 4. Science is the main responsible for the nightmare of global nuclear destruction that still haunts humankind. From the 1950s to the Mid-1960s, the industrial innovation process was generally perceived as a linear progression from scientific discovery, through technological development in firms, to … A corollary of the principle is the proposition that the more sectors of social life are integrated into the market system, the better. 21, 27). Long before this historians of science and technology, as well as historians more generally had recognized that the realities of the innovative process were far more complex than this simplistic view" (Freeman, 1996, p. 29). As I try to show in Oliveira (2013a), there are two other important domains in the same situation, namely, public interest science (cf. model | org. New York: Wiley, 1989. Mental Model #1: Business as usual: As Hamel points out, traditional management is uncongenial to innovation. Subscription models. The change is the result of a process that involves the rejection of the basic science/applied science dichotomy assumed in Sef, and can be analyzed, logically and historically, in two steps. The most important part however is targeted at the anti-basic science character of the thesis, from the point of view of both the instrumental and the intrinsic values of science. Bush. (For the difference between the three different types of innovation, One of the most famous and groundbreaking examples of process innovation is Henry Ford’s invention of the world’s first moving assembly line. “Linear models of innovation” are an explanation of the process of innovation. In the literature of Innovation Studies, I have not found any direct contestation of the Principle of Serendipity. An example is Google’s Android mobile operating system, which potentially disrupts the likes of Apple and Microsoft. 4 On the thesis of science's public good nature, its use as an argument in favor of the financing of research by the state, and the critique leveled against it by a radical wing of neoliberals, see Mirowski, 2011, p. 56 ff. literature as the linear model of innovation, but has received little critical attention so far. Thus, after denying the presence of the LMI in Sef in the quotation of the previous section, Stokes goes on to add: If one includes the valorization of basic science in its definition, only a part of the LMI is a straw man; and that part, one may now add, functions as a red herring by, as Stokes says, drawing fire away from more important aspects of the situation. Science & Education, 22, 10, p. 2463-83, 2013a. (Harvey 2007, p. 2 and p. 159). Already from the definition, you can tell that innovation is not limited to the size of business or the business venture you are dealing with.Hence, innovation is open for everyone in business. That motivation must be restricted to pure intellectual curiosity, the desire to understand the workings of nature, to contribute to the advance of scientific knowledge for its own sake. The most important tension in the present context has to do with the role of the state in the economy. What is Linear Model of Innovation? Roberts, 1989, chap. Looking for research materials? Disruptive innovation requires a new business model (but not necessarily a technological breakthrough) and challenges the business models of other companies. Bush, V. Science, the endless frontier. The first step consists in putting forward the idea of a form of research that is fundamental, in the sense that it may provide advances in scientific knowledge on a par with those of basic research, but oriented from start to a determinate field of applications. The third generation Interactive, Coupling or Chain-linked models overcame many of the shortcomings of the previous linear atypical examples models, by incorporating interaction and feedback loops to recognize that innovation is characterized by a coupling of and interaction between science and technology and the marketplace. [ Links ], Sharif, N. Emergence and development of the National Innovation Systems concept. Before we get into the part where we look at how to actually do business model innovation, let’s first take a look at a few examples of business model innovation to get a better picture of what it can look like in practice. Some thoughts on implementation . The autonomy of the scientific community in the determination of the programme of research is exercised in this way, i.e., by making it a function of the intrinsic value of science for the scientists. The economic liberal can, therefore, without any inconsistency call upon the state to use the force of law; he can even appeal to the violent forces of civil war to set up the preconditions of a self-regulating market. The Principle of Serendipity is an implication of that idea, namely, the proposition according to which, among basic research projects, it is possible to forecast neither which ones will in fact yield technological applications, nor the type of practical problem, if any, each one will contribute to solve.5 As a consequence, research cannot be oriented and the determination of the programme of scientific research stays in the hands of the scientific community. It postulates that technological innovation is a sequential and linear process from invention to diffusion. A classic example is log-linear models for structurally-square contingency tables (e.g., pair studies, before-after studies, etc.). At the conceptual level, both the laissez-faire and the market interventionist views concerning scientific practices imply the extinction of basic research (in the sense present in Sef of research motivated only by its intellectual interest to scientists). Accessed: 26 Aug. 2013. This line of thought leads to the theme - which lies beyond the scope of this paper - of how to improve the ways scientific practices are conducted, in order to make it contribute more effectively to well-being of everybody. The accusation of interventionism on the part of liberal writers is thus an empty slogan, implying the denunciation of one and the same set of actions according to whether they happen to approve of them or not. Here are some well known examples that can be helpful with managing innovation. In other words, for Aristotle what is at stake is the intrinsic value of "scientific" (in his terms, "theoretical") knowledge, for modern scientists, the intrinsic value of research. The considerations to be presented allow the LMI thesis to be seen as a neoliberal commodifying device. The model can be used when defining a corporate innovation management strategy. As I try to show in the aforementioned article, the concept of innovation, so defined, is the core of innovationism - "innovationism" being the name given to the movement aimed at establishing the production of innovations as the primary end of scientific research. In Geoffrey A. Moore's book, "Dealing with Darwin: How Great Companies Innovate at Every Phase of … Neoliberalism favors the market to the detriment of the state; one of its core principles is the doctrine of the minimal state. innovation’, from the hundred-year-old linear model to the chain interactions. [ Links ]. Already in 1991, Rosenberg treats the question as closed, in an article whose first paragraph is: In 1996, Christopher Freeman himself, questioning to a certain degree such unanimity, wrote: Considering the sort of innovations required to deal with environmental problems caused by economic activities, Freeman comes to the conclusion, expressed in the final sentence of his article, that "elements of the vanquished and much derided linear model may come to the rescue of their successors." Technology and basic science: the linear model of innovation, Philosophy Graduated Program, Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Human Sciences, University of São Paulo, Brazil. The answer is Business Model Innovation. (Org.). This site will look much better in a browser that supports web standards, but it is accessible to any browser or Internet device. Trying anything new inevitably entails experimentation and failure. Hardy, G. H. A mathematician's apology. That conception about the scientists motivations, from the point of view of science's two values, is forcefully defended, in a descriptive and normative key, by Hardy: In contrast with Aristotle's praise of knowledge as an end in itself, in modern science the value resides not so much in having knowledge, but in searching for knowledge. [ Links ]. Roberts, R. M. Serendipity: accidental discoveries in science. 5 In studies of serendipity in science and technology, one finds cases that occur within science, like that of Roentgen and the X rays, and within technology, like that of Teflon (cf. The concession of public funds to scientific research is legitimized by the technological applications it gives rise to. What is it? The ‘technology-push’ model depicts that innovation arises from “technological developments within innovative organizations” (Conway, S. and Steward, F. 2009:66). Sagamore Beach (MA): Science History Publications, 2004. The public financing of scientific research, provided in accordance with neoliberal principles, is an action of the state that promotes commodification - in this case the commodification of science in the programmatic dimension -; it is therefore a manifestation of the market interventionist view. Science, Technology and Human Values, 31, 6, p. 639-67, 2006. The emphasis however is on what the state should not do: it should not meddle in the economy, by engaging in productive or commercial activities, by interfering with the functioning of the market, etc. Kline & Rosenberg, 1986, p. 293). The models shown above are referred to as ‘linear models’ because they describe innovation as a linear sequence of events. This simple linear model prevailed from the 1950s till early 1970s. 58ff. We discuss the problems with linear and design-thinking models of the innovation process, and propose an alternative view. The crucial element in the Bush's defense of basic science can be interpreted as an argument against oriented research. In the simplest linear model of innovation the traditionally recognized source is manufacturer innovation. 2 In the critique of innovationism developed in Oliveira (2013a), I resort to the concept of public interest science (contrasted with private interest science) to bring into consideration the domain of scientific research oriented by a concern with public welfare, and addressed to problems not susceptible to solution by the market system. Gillette. The acknowledgement of the cultural value of science as a factor in the legitimation of public financing of basic research leads to the question of criteria to be adopted for the distribution of resources. Available at: . A prime example of innovation involved the explosive boom of Silicon Valley startups out of the Stanford Industrial Park. Washington: National Academy Press, 1986. (Org.). Washington: National Academy Press, 1986. p. 275-304. This essay will revolve around strengths and weaknesses of linear model and its suitability in current business setting. [ Links ], Krimsky, S. Science in the private interest: has the lure of profits corrupted biomedical research? Technology push … The positive sum strategy: harnessing technology for economic growth. 7ff.). (Edgerton 2004, p. This paper is a fragment of a larger research project that I have been working on for some time. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981 [1940] [ Links ]. ! [ Links ], ______. He suggests that the source remains unclear, but he offers an initial early reference from 1945. Here are some creativity and innovation examples: The electronics company LG introduced a new type of screen that is flexible enough to roll up like a newspaper. In this paper, it is argued that: (1) the LMI was introduced with critical purposes, as part of the questioning of the conception of science and the proposals for science policies put forward in Sef; (2) at a first level of analysis, the LMI appears as a straw man, defended neither in Sef, nor anywhere else; (3) the LMI is a weapon against the importance attributed to basic science in Sef, and its defense of the financing of basic research by the state; (4) the LMI is a component of the process of commodification of science promoted by neoliberalism. Science mart: privatizing American science. Subscription models. Very briefly, they can be characterized as follows. The company’s innovation strategy involves terrific new products and innovative business models. In America the South appealed to the arguments of laissez faire to justify slavery; the North appealed to the intervention of arms to establish a free labor market. [ Links ], Merton, R. K. & Barber, E. The travels and adventures of serendipity: a study in sociological semantics and the sociology of science. (Ed.). (2) Processes of corporatization, understood as those which introduce principles and methods typical of capitalist private enterprises into the management of the production of scientific knowledge, at all levels. For example, most of the adopters of this model in my research sample have limited the membership of their dedicated innovation group to those senior leaders most directly involved with innovation activities, i.e. In that context, i.e., without consideration of possible applications, research has value only for the researchers themselves. Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1997. ! Kline & Rosenberg's article, as Fagerberg remarks, was very influential, and soon after its publication, its main theses became a commonplace in the literature of Innovation Studies, repeatedly asserted, but almost always as a dogma, a truth so well established that there is no need to spell out the arguments initially presented in its defense. Oliveira, 2013a). An example of a linear time series model is an autoregressive moving average model. The conclusion is that, with due reservations, the defense of basic science grounded on the Principle of Serendipity has some validity, and helps to legitimate its financing by the state. The second way occurs when practical problems stimulate scientific research on certain domain. The independence model is logE(y rc) = + r + c or with glm > glm(y ~ row + col, family = poisson) Tutorial on gnm, useR! Given its close association with industrial civilization, science must share the responsibility for the environmental problems which loom large on humankind's horizon. B. Godin, ... example, public procurement (stimulating innovation through government’s demand) is a much discussed topic in contemporary works on innovation policies. However - in a move that might appear paradoxical at first sight - the production of predetermined technological applications should not be a criterion in decisions about the research programme. The stages are the phases of the actual work that needs to be executed in a project/ new product development and the gates are points in time when a decision has to be made about the future of the project. Neoliberalism intensifies capitalism's propensity to turn everything into commodities. An instance of oriented research, which Stokes (1997) presents as an exemplary case is that of Pasteur's investigations about micro-organisms and their role in infectious and fermentation processes, motivated by the aim of dealing with many diseases in humans and animals, and improving the methods of production of vinegar, wine and beer. In the modern conditions, when there is increased manifestations of globalization and a backward process – the regionalization, innovation is increasingly seen as a phenomenon that can take roots in a particular area. How do we use it? Sef's prescription is that scientists not only need not, but also should not be concerned with applications, since - it is assumed - "applied research invariably drives out pure" (Bush [1945] 1990, p. 83). At an intermediate level, there is grosso modo a limited amount of funds for financing the research carried out in public and private universities and research institutions, distributed by sponsoring agencies. The argument's core is found in this passage: As one can see, the authors' anti-basic science stance does not correspond to an abstract value judgment about basic science as a whole, but rather to an attitude about the basic research that is conducted at any moment. The first is by providing scientific empirical investigations with research equipment that is used in laboratories and in the observation of nature. This paper is essentially a critique of the LMI thesis, which is widespread in Innovation Studies and in some adjacent areas. The third generation Interactive, Coupling or Chain-linked models overcame many of the shortcomings of the previous linear atypical examples models, by incorporating interaction and feedback loops to recognize that innovation is characterized by a coupling of and interaction between science and technology and the marketplace. BCG recently studied more than 100 of the world’s most innovative companies—industry leaders in TSR and fixtures in BCG’s annual innovation report. Washington: National Science Foundation, 1990 [1945] [ Links ]. The most general one is that "the central process of innovation is not Science, but design" (Kline & Rosenberg 1986, p. 286). Innovation: a guide to the literature. But they do not mention the unanticipated character of those applications, and they claim that such occurrences are rare (cf. It postulates that technological innovation is a sequential and linear process from invention to diffusion. The market interventionist view acknowledges that the conditions for the operation of the free market as the organizing principle in society do not come about naturally, but require the engagement of the state in several types of action, like the creation of markets for as yet non commodified categories of goods, the conversion of various forms of property rights into private property rights, the suppression of rights to the commons, the elimination of alternative (indigenous) forms of production, etc. The Linear Model of Innovation is an early model of innovation that suggests technical change and the development process happen in a linear fashion from Invention to Innovation to Diffusion. It is present in non-scientists interested in science, the group of people that constitute the audience for scientific popularization in the form of newspaper sections, magazines, radio and TV programs, documentaries, etc. That difference in interpretations, however, does not affect what really matters, namely, the fact that the importance attributed to basic science in Sef - which innovationists criticize as exaggerated - is a crucial component of the argument in favour of its financing by the state. In order to understand its mode of action, it is necessary to consider the situation at a more concrete level, taking into account the institutional arrangements involved in the financing of scientific research. [ Links ], Fagerberg, J.; Mowery, D. C. & Nelson, R. R. Another argument of Kline & Rosenberg's aimed at reducing the value attributed to basic science relies on the claim that many innovations are created in the absence of the theoretical knowledge on which they could be based. As regards the instrumental value, the most important argument in favour of basic science figures with due prominence in Sef, although in an inadequate form. O comuneiro, 16, Mar. Science and Public Policy, 18, 6, p. 335-46, 1991. Part of the critique has to do with the anachronism involved in the attribution of the LMI to Sef. Hence, this perspective, which is often associated with Vannevar Bush's programmatic statements on the organization of US research systems (Bush, 1945), is well suited to defend the interests of researchers and scientists and the organizations in which they work (Fagerberg, 2005, p. 8). The concept of the "linear model of innovation" (LMI) was introduced by authors belonging to the field of innovation studies in the middle of the 1980s. One of the first (conceptual) frameworks developed for understanding the relation of science and technology to the economy has been the linear model of innovation. Polanyi, K. The great transformation: the political and economic origins of our time. The concept of the "linear model of innovation" (LMI) was introduced by authors belonging to the field of innovation studies in the middle of the 1980s. According to the model, there is a simple sequence of steps going from basic science to innovations - an innovation being defined as an invention that is profitable. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 53, p. 27-39, 1996. "market pull" model. (Ed.). Like HBO, it licenses or creates all its content. In innovation studies, the LMI is held to be assumed in Some thoughts on implementation . [ Links ], Mirowski, P. & Plehwe, D. A variety of activities is performed at each stage. This paper is entirely concerned with models. If our mental models are limited, then our approach to managing innovation is also likely to be limited. [ Links ], Kline, S. J. 4). Recently, Differential built a mobile sales dashboard for Grupo Bimbo. In its first chapter, authored by Jan Fagerberg, there is a box called "What innovation is not", where one reads: Sometimes it is easier to characterize a complex phenomenon by clearly pointing out what it is NOT. In: Landau, R. & N. Rosenberg, N. Given its roots in Innovation Studies, the LMI can be conveniently characterized by quoting from a volume very representative of that field, The Oxford handbook of innovation (cf. The positive sum strategy: harnessing technology for economic growth. The model has many similarities to the linear model of innovation in the sense that it too looks at technological innovation as a process (in time). In deliberations about what projects to support, intrinsic value should have greater weight in the case of knowledge understandable by laymen - like that relating to the history of life on Earth, and particularly of our species, and the existence of extraterrestrial life - than in the case of abstruse conceptions comprehensible only by an extremely small number of specialists, like superstring theory, or the detection of Higgs boson (cf. I have not found any direct contestation of the LMI thesis a corollary of the market to chain. A profitable undertaking not really believe in such a model washington: National science Foundation linear model of innovation example 1990 [ ]... To perceive that the resulting innovations will create value pairs are classi ed twice, into and! Mercantilização da ciência: a dimensão programática that category is much smaller than that of or..., 2001 [ 1944 ] [ Links ], Fagerberg, J. ; Mowery, C.. 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